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เรากำลังจัดทำคู่มือการศึกษาที่ครอบคลุมสำหรับ Burn Surface Area (Rule of Nines) กลับมาเร็วๆ นี้เพื่อดูคำอธิบายทีละขั้นตอน สูตร ตัวอย่างจริง และเคล็ดลับจากผู้เชี่ยวชาญ
The Rule of Nines is a rapid clinical tool used to estimate the percentage of Total Body Surface Area (%TBSA) affected by burn injuries in adult patients. First described by Alexander Wallace in 1951, it divides the adult body into anatomical regions each representing approximately 9% (or multiples of 9%) of the total body surface area. In adults: the head and neck account for 9%, each upper limb (arm, forearm, and hand) accounts for 9%, the anterior trunk (chest and abdomen) accounts for 18%, the posterior trunk (upper and lower back and buttocks) accounts for 18%, each lower limb (thigh, leg, and foot) accounts for 18%, and the perineum accounts for 1%. Together these sum to 100%. Only partial thickness (second degree) and full thickness (third degree) burns are included in the TBSA estimate; superficial (first degree) burns such as simple sunburn are excluded as they do not cause significant fluid shifts. The Rule of Nines is a quick estimate tool, acceptable for initial assessment and fluid calculation using the Parkland Formula, but it has known limitations in paediatric patients because the proportional contribution of the head and lower limbs changes significantly with age. For children, the Lund-Browder chart provides age-adjusted percentages and is the preferred tool. An additional quick method applicable to both adults and children is the 'palmar surface method' — the patient's palm (including fingers) represents approximately 1% TBSA and can be used to estimate irregular or scattered burn areas by counting how many palms fit the affected area.
Head = 9%; Each arm = 9%; Anterior trunk = 18%; Posterior trunk = 18%; Each leg = 18%; Perineum = 1%; Total = 100%; Palm method: 1 palm = 1% TBSA
- 1Step 1 — Identify burn depth: Distinguish superficial (1st degree, e.g., sunburn — pink, painful, no blisters), partial thickness (2nd degree — blisters, wet, painful), and full thickness (3rd degree — dry, leathery, painless). Only 2nd and 3rd degree burns count in TBSA.
- 2Step 2 — Assess each body region: Systematically examine head and neck (9%), anterior trunk (18%), posterior trunk (18%), each arm (9%), each leg (18%), and perineum (1%).
- 3Step 3 — Estimate partial burns within regions: If only part of a region is burned, estimate what fraction of that region is involved (e.g., half the anterior trunk = 9%).
- 4Step 4 — Sum all burned regions: Add the TBSA percentages of all affected regions (2nd and 3rd degree only).
- 5Step 5 — Use palm method for irregular burns: For scattered or irregular burns, lay the patient's own palm (fingers included) against the burn — each palm = 1% TBSA.
- 6Step 6 — Apply to Parkland Formula: Use the total %TBSA in the Parkland Formula (4 × weight × %TBSA) for 24-hour fluid requirement.
- 7Step 7 — Use Lund-Browder for children: Apply age-adjusted head (up to 19% in infants) and leg percentages from the Lund-Browder table for patients under 15 years.
Parkland volume = 4 × 75 × 45 = 13,500 mL; admit to burns unit immediately
Head/neck 9% + both arms (9+9) 18% + anterior trunk 18% = 45% TBSA. Partial and full thickness burns only. Superficial areas excluded.
Consider outpatient burns management if <15% TBSA in healthy adult; assess depth carefully
Right leg total = 18%. If only the anterior (front) surface of the thigh is burned, roughly 9% TBSA affected. Below the threshold requiring IV resuscitation in most adults.
36% TBSA in adult: Parkland = 4 × 70 × 36 = 10,080 mL in 24h
Posterior trunk 18% + both posterior legs (each leg 18%, but only posterior half burned) = ~18% = total 36%.
Rule of Nines gives 45% in adults but Lund-Browder gives different values in infants — always use Lund-Browder under 15 years
In infants, the head is proportionally much larger (19% vs 9% in adults) and legs are smaller. Using adult Rule of Nines would significantly underestimate head burn TBSA.
Emergency department initial assessment of burn size to determine need for IV resuscitation, burns centre referral, and fluid volume calculation. This application is commonly used by professionals who need precise quantitative analysis to support decision-making, budgeting, and strategic planning in their respective fields
Pre-hospital triage by paramedics and HEMS crews to guide fluid administration and appropriate destination decision. Industry practitioners rely on this calculation to benchmark performance, compare alternatives, and ensure compliance with established standards and regulatory requirements
Burns centre documentation for wound management planning, skin graft requirement estimation, and ICU monitoring. Academic researchers and students use this computation to validate theoretical models, complete coursework assignments, and develop deeper understanding of the underlying mathematical principles
Major incident mass casualty triage to rapidly classify burn severity and prioritise transport to specialist units. Financial analysts and planners incorporate this calculation into their workflow to produce accurate forecasts, evaluate risk scenarios, and present data-driven recommendations to stakeholders
Medico-legal and insurance documentation of burn extent for workers' compensation or criminal injury assessment. This application is commonly used by professionals who need precise quantitative analysis to support decision-making, budgeting, and strategic planning in their respective fields
Paediatric Burns — Lund-Browder
{'title': 'Paediatric Burns — Lund-Browder', 'body': 'In children, the head at birth represents 19% TBSA and decreases by approximately 1% per year of age until reaching 9% in adulthood. Legs increase correspondingly. Use the Lund-Browder chart which provides specific percentages by age group (0, 1, 5, 10, 15 years) for each body segment. This is mandatory for accurate TBSA estimation in all patients under 15.'}
Circumferential Burns
{'title': 'Circumferential Burns', 'body': 'Full circumferential burns around limbs or the chest can be life-threatening irrespective of TBSA. Limb eschar restricts circulation, causing ischaemia distal to the burn. Chest eschar restricts ventilation. Escharotomy must be considered based on clinical examination (absent distal pulses, rising airway pressures), not TBSA alone.'} This edge case frequently arises in professional applications of burn percentage rule9 where boundary conditions or extreme values are involved. Practitioners should document when this situation occurs and consider whether alternative calculation methods or adjustment factors are more appropriate for their specific use case.
Electrical Burns
{'title': 'Electrical Burns', 'body': 'Electrical burns have an entry and exit wound with potentially extensive deep tissue injury not visible on the skin surface. Surface TBSA grossly underestimates total tissue injury. Additional considerations include cardiac arrhythmia (mandatory ECG monitoring), rhabdomyolysis (myoglobinuria), and spinal injury from electrical tetany or fall.'} In the context of burn percentage rule9, this special case requires careful interpretation because standard assumptions may not hold. Users should cross-reference results with domain expertise and consider consulting additional references or tools to validate the output under these atypical conditions.
Chemical Burns
{'title': 'Chemical Burns', 'body': 'Chemical burn area requires copious water irrigation (minimum 20–30 minutes) before definitive TBSA assessment. The burn area may expand as the chemical continues to react. Hydrofluoric acid burns have severe systemic toxicity (hypocalcaemia) requiring calcium gluconate gel application and IV calcium supplementation regardless of TBSA.'} When encountering this scenario in burn percentage rule9 calculations, users should verify that their input values fall within the expected range for the formula to produce meaningful results. Out-of-range inputs can lead to mathematically valid but practically meaningless outputs that do not reflect real-world conditions.
Burns with Inhalation Injury
{'title': 'Burns with Inhalation Injury', 'body': 'Inhalation injury is diagnosed by clinical features (singed nasal hairs, carbonaceous sputum, stridor, hoarse voice) and bronchoscopy. It increases fluid requirements by up to 50% beyond Parkland Formula predictions and mandates early intubation to secure the airway before progressive oedema causes obstruction.'} This edge case frequently arises in professional applications of burn percentage rule9 where boundary conditions or extreme values are involved. Practitioners should document when this situation occurs and consider whether alternative calculation methods or adjustment factors are more appropriate for their specific use case.
| Body Region | % TBSA |
|---|---|
| Head and Neck | 9% |
| Anterior Trunk (chest + abdomen) | 18% |
| Posterior Trunk (upper + lower back) | 18% |
| Each Upper Limb (arm + forearm + hand) | 9% |
| Each Lower Limb (thigh + leg + foot) | 18% |
| Perineum | 1% |
| TOTAL | 100% |
Why are first-degree burns excluded from TBSA?
First-degree burns (superficial burns, e.g., mild sunburn) affect only the epidermis and do not cause the capillary leak and fluid shifts that necessitate IV resuscitation. Including them in TBSA calculations would over-inflate fluid requirements and lead to dangerous over-resuscitation (fluid creep). This matters because accurate burn percentage rule9 calculations directly affect decision-making in professional and personal contexts. Without proper computation, users risk making decisions based on incomplete or incorrect quantitative analysis.
When should I use the Lund-Browder chart instead of Rule of Nines?
Always use Lund-Browder for patients under 15 years of age. Children have a proportionally larger head and smaller lower limbs than adults. In a newborn, the head represents 19% TBSA (vs 9% in adults) and each leg only 13% (vs 18%). Using the adult Rule of Nines in children underestimates head burns and overestimates leg burns.
What does the palm method estimate?
The patient's palm (hand including fingers) represents approximately 1% of their total body surface area. It is useful for estimating small, scattered, or irregular burns where the Rule of Nines regions do not apply cleanly. Count how many palms fit the burned area and that gives the approximate %TBSA. The examiner's palm should NOT be used — only the patient's.
What %TBSA requires hospital admission?
General guidelines suggest admission for burns >10% TBSA in adults (>5% in children or elderly), any full-thickness burn, burns to face, hands, feet, genitalia or perineum, circumferential burns, chemical or electrical burns, or burns with inhalation injury. Burns >15–20% TBSA typically require IV fluid resuscitation. This is an important consideration when working with burn percentage rule9 calculations in practical applications.
How accurate is the Rule of Nines?
The Rule of Nines is an estimate with known variability. Studies show inter-observer agreement is moderate, with a tendency to overestimate TBSA by 50–100% in smaller burns and underestimate in larger burns. It is a useful triage tool but should not replace experienced burns specialist assessment for treatment planning. The process involves applying the underlying formula systematically to the given inputs.
What is the American Burn Association major burn classification?
ABA defines major burns as: >25% TBSA in adults aged 10–50, >20% in adults >50 or children <10, full thickness burns >10% TBSA, burns to face/hands/feet/genitalia/perineum, inhalation injury, electrical burns, and burns with significant trauma. These require treatment at a verified burn centre. In practice, this concept is central to burn percentage rule9 because it determines the core relationship between the input variables.
How does obesity affect Rule of Nines?
Obesity alters body proportions — adipose tissue does not burn at the same rate as lean tissue, and the trunk is disproportionately large in obese patients. The standard Rule of Nines may overestimate TBSA in obese patients. Some burn specialists recommend using a modified chart or adjustment factor for morbidly obese patients.
What is the difference between 2nd and 3rd degree burns clinically?
Second degree (partial thickness) burns are blistered, wet, extremely painful, and blanch with pressure. Third degree (full thickness) burns are dry, leathery or waxy, not painful (nerve destruction), and do not blanch. Both require inclusion in TBSA for fluid calculation. Full thickness burns require skin grafting; many partial thickness burns heal with appropriate wound care.
เคล็ดลับโปร
Use the Rule of Nines as a mnemonic by the numbers: 9-9-18-18-18-18-1. Head=9, each arm=9, front of body=18, back of body=18, each leg=18, groin=1. Multiply by 2 for the full Rule of Nines circle. For quick mental calculation: bilateral arm burns = 18%, full body front = 36%, whole posterior = 36%.
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Alexander Wallace's Rule of Nines was first presented at a clinical meeting in Edinburgh in 1951 on the back of a cigarette packet — a reminder that some of medicine's most enduring clinical tools originated from beautifully simple observations rather than complex research. Despite over 70 years of burns research, it remains the go-to assessment for emergency burns TBSA estimation worldwide.